{"id":2011,"date":"2020-12-27T17:31:00","date_gmt":"2020-12-27T16:31:00","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/dev.studioboszkers.nl\/microbiome-center\/?page_id=2011"},"modified":"2023-01-31T19:16:21","modified_gmt":"2023-01-31T18:16:21","slug":"immuniteit-en-virusinfecties","status":"publish","type":"page","link":"https:\/\/dev.studioboszkers.nl\/microbiome-center\/immuniteit-en-virusinfecties\/","title":{"rendered":"Immuniteit en virusinfecties"},"content":{"rendered":"<p>[et_pb_section fb_built=&#8221;1&#8243; custom_padding_last_edited=&#8221;on|phone&#8221; _builder_version=&#8221;4.16.0&#8243; _module_preset=&#8221;default&#8221; background_image=&#8221;https:\/\/dev.studioboszkers.nl\/microbiome-center\/wp-content\/uploads\/2020\/11\/microbiome-center-header-2.jpg&#8221; min_height=&#8221;497px&#8221; custom_padding=&#8221;||251px|||&#8221; custom_padding_tablet=&#8221;||251px|||&#8221; custom_padding_phone=&#8221;||0px||false|false&#8221; global_colors_info=&#8221;{}&#8221;][et_pb_row _builder_version=&#8221;4.16.0&#8243; _module_preset=&#8221;default&#8221; custom_margin=&#8221;100px||||false|false&#8221; custom_margin_tablet=&#8221;100px||||false|false&#8221; custom_margin_phone=&#8221;75px||||false|false&#8221; custom_margin_last_edited=&#8221;on|phone&#8221; global_colors_info=&#8221;{}&#8221;][et_pb_column type=&#8221;4_4&#8243; _builder_version=&#8221;4.16&#8243; _module_preset=&#8221;default&#8221; global_colors_info=&#8221;{}&#8221;][et_pb_text _builder_version=&#8221;4.16&#8243; _module_preset=&#8221;default&#8221; text_font=&#8221;Titillium Web|600|||||||&#8221; header_font=&#8221;Titillium Web|700|||||||&#8221; header_2_font=&#8221;Titillium Web|700|||||||&#8221; header_2_text_color=&#8221;#2e2645&#8243; custom_padding=&#8221;4px||0px|||&#8221; global_colors_info=&#8221;{}&#8221;]<\/p>\n<h1><strong>Immuniteit en virusinfecties<\/strong><\/h1>\n<p>Impressie van de publicaties over de relevantie van het microbioom\u00a0<\/p>\n<p>[\/et_pb_text][\/et_pb_column][\/et_pb_row][et_pb_row use_custom_gutter=&#8221;on&#8221; 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background_layout__hover=&#8221;light&#8221; background_layout__hover_enabled=&#8221;light&#8221; max_width__hover=&#8221;100%&#8221; max_width__hover_enabled=&#8221;100%&#8221; header_2_font_size__hover=&#8221;26px&#8221; header_2_font_size__hover_enabled=&#8221;26px&#8221; header_2_letter_spacing__hover=&#8221;0px&#8221; header_2_letter_spacing__hover_enabled=&#8221;0px&#8221; header_2_line_height__hover=&#8221;1em&#8221; header_2_line_height__hover_enabled=&#8221;1em&#8221; header_2_text_shadow_style__hover=&#8221;none&#8221; header_2_text_shadow_style__hover_enabled=&#8221;none&#8221; header_2_text_shadow_color__hover=&#8221;rgba(0,0,0,0.4)&#8221; header_2_text_shadow_color__hover_enabled=&#8221;rgba(0,0,0,0.4)&#8221;]<\/p>\n<p><strong>Immuniteit<\/strong><br \/>Het microbioom in de darm speelt een belangrijke rol in de educatie en functie van het immuunsysteem (1,2). De darmbacteri\u00ebn zijn mede bepalend voor de grondtoon van het immuunsysteem (3) en be\u00efnvloeden daarmee de cruciale balans die er bestaat tussen voldoende afweer en voldoende remming van inflammatie (4-6). Daarmee speelt het darm-microbioom een rol in de verworven immuniteit en hoe effectief het immuunsysteem kan reageren op pathogenen, maar ook in de mate waarin immuunreacties binnen de perken blijven (7). Opvallend is dat veel niet-overdraagbare ziekten zoals diabetes type 2 gekenmerkt worden door een overactief immuunsysteem in de vorm van laaggradige ontsteking (8-10), terwijl er tegelijkertijd aanwijzingen zijn dat de acute immuunrespons bij virusinfecties onvoldoende is (11,12). Tot slot onderschrijven onderzoek naar het effect van antibiotica (13) en probiotica (14) op de immuunrespons bij vaccinaties de rol van het microbioom bij immuniteit. Kortom, een verstoord microbioom kan er zowel toe leiden dat het immuunsysteem onvoldoende effectief kan reageren op infecties en dat de inflammatoire response te heftig of te lang is.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Virusinfecties<\/strong><br \/>Dat virusinfecties invloed hebben op de darm en daarmee het darm-microbioom is, gezien de vaak ook optredende darmklachten, niet verbazingwekkend. Hoewel het onderzoek nog in haar kinderschoenen staat, zijn er ook aanwijzingen voor het bestaan van een omgekeerde relatie, waarbij het microbioom medebepalend is voor de response op en het verloop van virusinfecties (15). Behandeling met verschillende soorten antibiotica in proefdieren heeft laten zien dat de samenstelling van het darm-microbioom invloed heeft op het verloop van een infectie met het griepvirus (16,17). Anderzijds laat proefdier en humaan onderzoek zien dat bepaalde probiotische stammen het verloop van griepvirus infectie gunstig kan be\u00c3\u00afnvloeden (18).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Longontsteking<\/strong><br \/>Recent onderzoek richt zich op de zogenaamde darm-long as, die het gevolg is van een complexe interactie tussen micro-organismen onderling en met o.a. het immuunsysteem van de gastheer (19,20). In dit licht is het interessant dat een Cochrane review concludeert dat er voorzichtige aanwijzingen zijn dat probiotica luchtweginfecties kunnen verminderen en het verloop gunstig kan be\u00efnvloeden. Een andere Cochrane review concludeert dat er enige aanwijzingen zijn dat probiotica het risico op beademing-geassocieerde longontsteking kunnen verminderen, hoewel de kwaliteit van de meegenomen studies laag is (21). Gezamenlijk suggereren deze bevindingen dat het darm-microbioom infecties en ontstekingen in de longen kan be\u00efnvloeden.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Actueel<\/strong><br \/>In het licht van de huidige pandemie is de literatuur nagegaan om te zien of de bovengenoemde invloed van het darm-microbioom op immuniteit en infecties mogelijk ook een rol speelt bij de ziekte die veroorzaakt wordt door infectie met het SARS-CoV-2 coronavirus.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Maagdarmklachten<\/strong><br \/>Bij ruim 200 Covid-19 pati\u00ebnten die in drie ziekenhuizen in China waren opgenomen, had ruim de helft gastro-intestinale klachten (22). Hieronder rekenden de auteurs ook verminderde eetlust, wat niet erg specifiek is voor maagdarmklachten. Als alleen wordt gekeken naar diarree, overgeven, en buikpijn, dan kwamen deze klachten bij 19% van de pati\u00ebnten voor.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Virus in de ontlasting<\/strong><br \/>In verschillende onderzoeken is het SARS-CoV-2 virus aangetroffen in ontlastingmonsters (23,24). Het feit dat het RIVM het virus ook in rioolwater heeft aangetroffen bevestigt de aanwezigheid van het virus in ontlasting (25). De detectie in ontlasting leidt tot de verdenking dat infectie met het virus niet alleen via druppeltjes in de lucht, maar ook via de fecale-orale route zou kunnen plaatsvinden (26), wat impliceert dat infectie ook via het gastro-intestinale stelsel kan gaan.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Reuk en infectie van neuronen<\/strong><br \/>De Britse vereniging van KNO artsen publiceerde op 21 maart een bericht waarin verlies van reukzin wordt genoemd als een mogelijk symptoom van Covid-19 (27). In het bericht wordt melding gemaakt dat in Zuid Korea (waar zeer veel mensen getest zijn) bij circa 30% van de besmette individuen verminderde reukzin de belangrijkste klacht was bij een verder mild ziektebeeld. Een mogelijke oorzaak van deze verminderde reukzin, is dat het SARS-CoV-2 virus in de hersenen terecht kan komen (28). Onderzoekers denken bovendien dat dit mogelijk verband houdt met de ademhalingsproblemen die in ernstige gevallen gevonden worden, omdat het ademhalingscentrum in de hersenstam aangedaan kan zijn (29). Antigenen tegen SARS-CoV-2 zijn teruggevonden in de hersenstam, en ook bij SARS-CoV (het coronavirus dat in 2003 rond ging) en MERS-CoV (het coronavirus dat in 2012 uitbrak) hoorde de hersenstam tot het meest ge\u00efnfecteerde deel van het brein (29).<br \/>De bloed-brein barri\u00ebre is een belangrijk anatomische laag die een groot deel (maar niet alle gebieden) van de hersenen beschermt door selectief stoffen door te laten of te blokkeren (30). Net als in het darmepitheel spelen &#8217;tight junctions&#8217; hier een belangrijke rol in. De tight junctions in het darmepitheel worden gereguleerd door zonulin (31), dat ook als marker voor verhoogde darmwandpermeabiliteit wordt gebruikt (32,33). Het darm-microbioom heeft een belangrijke regulerende rol van de permeabiliteit van de darmwand, onder ander via expressie van tight junctions (31,33). Intrigerend is dat recent onderzoek laat zien dat ook de tight junctions in de bloed-brein barri\u00ebre reageren op zonulin (34). Een verhoogde darm-permeabiliteit kan bovendien leiden tot bacteri\u00eble stoffen, zoals LPS, in de circulatie die zelf al dan niet via een ontstekingsreactie ook de bloed-brein barri\u00ebre nadelig be\u00efnvloeden (33,35,36).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Referenties<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>1. <span class=\"Apple-tab-span\"> <\/span>Hooper LV, Littman DR, Macpherson AJ. Interactions Between the Microbiota and the Immune System. Science. 2012;336:1268\u201373.<span class=\"Apple-converted-space\">\u00a0<\/span><\/p>\n<p>2. <span class=\"Apple-tab-span\"> <\/span>Shulzhenko N, Morgun A, Hsiao W, Battle M, Yao M, Gavrilova O, Orandle M, Mayer L, Macpherson AJ, McCoy KD, et al. Crosstalk between B lymphocytes, microbiota and the intestinal epithelium governs immunity versus metabolism in the gut. Nat Med. 2011;17:1585\u201393.<span class=\"Apple-converted-space\">\u00a0<\/span><\/p>\n<p>3. <span class=\"Apple-tab-span\"> <\/span>Belkaid Y, Harrison OJ. Homeostatic immunity and the microbiota. Immunity. 2017;46:562\u201376.<span class=\"Apple-converted-space\">\u00a0<\/span><\/p>\n<p>4. <span class=\"Apple-tab-span\"> <\/span>Wiesner DL, Klein BS. The Tipping Point between Lung Immunity and Inflammation. Science. 2017;357:973\u20134.<span class=\"Apple-converted-space\">\u00a0<\/span><\/p>\n<p>5. <span class=\"Apple-tab-span\"> <\/span>Taams LS. Inflammation and immune resolution. Clin Exp Immunol. 2018;193:1\u20132.<span class=\"Apple-converted-space\">\u00a0<\/span><\/p>\n<p>6. <span class=\"Apple-tab-span\"> <\/span>Cicchese JM, Evans S, Hult C, Joslyn LR, Wessler T, Millar JA, Marino S, Cilfone NA, Mattila JT, Linderman JJ, et al. Dynamic balance of pro- and anti-inflammatory signals controls disease and limits pathology. Immunol Rev. 2018;285:147\u201367.<span class=\"Apple-converted-space\">\u00a0<\/span><\/p>\n<p>7. <span class=\"Apple-tab-span\"> <\/span>Blander JM, Longman RS, Iliev ID, Sonnenberg GF, Artis D. Regulation of inflammation by microbiota interactions with the host. Nat Immunol. 2017;18:851\u201360.<span class=\"Apple-converted-space\">\u00a0<\/span><\/p>\n<p>8. <span class=\"Apple-tab-span\"> <\/span>Saltiel AR, Olefsky JM. Inflammatory mechanisms linking obesity and metabolic disease. J Clin Invest. 2017;127:1\u20134.<span class=\"Apple-converted-space\">\u00a0<\/span><\/p>\n<p>9. <span class=\"Apple-tab-span\"> <\/span>van Greevenbroek MMJ, Schalkwijk CG, Stehouwer CDA. Obesity-associated low-grade inflammation in type 2 diabetes mellitus: causes and consequences. Neth J Med. 2013;71:174\u201387.<span class=\"Apple-converted-space\">\u00a0<\/span><\/p>\n<p>10. <span class=\"Apple-tab-span\"> <\/span>Oguntibeju OO. Type 2 diabetes mellitus, oxidative stress and inflammation: examining the links. Int J Physiol Pathophysiol Pharmacol. 2019;11:45\u201363.<span class=\"Apple-converted-space\">\u00a0<\/span><\/p>\n<p>11. <span class=\"Apple-tab-span\"> <\/span>Karlsson EA, Sheridan PA, Beck MA. Diet-Induced Obesity Impairs the T Cell Memory Response to Influenza Virus Infection. J Immunol. American Association of Immunologists; 2010;184:3127\u201333.<span class=\"Apple-converted-space\">\u00a0<\/span><\/p>\n<p>12. <span class=\"Apple-tab-span\"> <\/span>Akmatov MK, Riese P, Trittel S, May M, Prokein J, Illig T, Schindler C, Guzm\u00e1n CA, Pessler F. Self-reported diabetes and herpes zoster are associated with a weak humoral response to the seasonal influenza A H1N1 vaccine antigen among the elderly. BMC Infect Dis [Internet]. 2019 [cited 2020 Mar 27];19. Available from: https:\/\/bmcinfectdis.biomedcentral.com\/articles\/10.1186\/s12879-019-4214-x<\/p>\n<p>13. <span class=\"Apple-tab-span\"> <\/span>Hagan T, Cortese M, Rouphael N, Boudreau C, Linde C, Maddur MS, Das J, Wang H, Guthmiller J, Zheng N-Y, et al. Antibiotics-Driven Gut Microbiome Perturbation Alters Immunity to Vaccines in Humans. Cell. 2019;178:1313-1328.e13.<span class=\"Apple-converted-space\">\u00a0<\/span><\/p>\n<p>14. <span class=\"Apple-tab-span\"> <\/span>Lei W-T, Shih P-C, Liu S-J, Lin C-Y, Yeh T-L. Effect of Probiotics and Prebiotics on Immune Response to Influenza Vaccination in Adults: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of Randomized Controlled Trials. Nutrients. 2017;9:1175.<span class=\"Apple-converted-space\">\u00a0<\/span><\/p>\n<p>15. <span class=\"Apple-tab-span\"> <\/span>Denny JE, Powell WL, Schmidt NW. Local and Long-Distance Calling: Conversations between the Gut Microbiota and Intra- and Extra-Gastrointestinal Tract Infections. Front Cell Infect Microbiol [Internet]. 2016 [cited 2020 Mar 27];6. Available from: http:\/\/journal.frontiersin.org\/Article\/10.3389\/fcimb.2016.00041\/abstract<\/p>\n<p>16. <span class=\"Apple-tab-span\"> <\/span>Ichinohe T, Pang IK, Kumamoto Y, Peaper DR, Ho JH, Murray TS, Iwasaki A. Microbiota regulates immune defense against respiratory tract influenza A virus infection. Proc Natl Acad Sci. 2011;108:5354\u20139.<span class=\"Apple-converted-space\">\u00a0<\/span><\/p>\n<p>17. <span class=\"Apple-tab-span\"> <\/span>Abt MC, Osborne LC, Monticelli LA, Doering TA, Alenghat T, Sonnenberg GF, Paley MA, Antenus M, Williams KL, Erikson J, et al. Commensal Bacteria Calibrate the Activation Threshold of Innate Antiviral Immunity. Immunity. 2012;37:158\u201370.<span class=\"Apple-converted-space\">\u00a0<\/span><\/p>\n<p>18. <span class=\"Apple-tab-span\"> <\/span>Zelaya H, Alvarez S, Kitazawa H, Villena J. Respiratory Antiviral Immunity and Immunobiotics: Beneficial Effects on Inflammation-Coagulation Interaction during Influenza Virus Infection. Front Immunol [Internet]. 2016 [cited 2020 Mar 27];7. Available from: http:\/\/journal.frontiersin.org\/article\/10.3389\/fimmu.2016.00633\/full<\/p>\n<p>19. <span class=\"Apple-tab-span\"> <\/span>Enaud R, Prevel R, Ciarlo E, Beaufils F, Wie\u00ebrs G, Guery B, Delhaes L. The Gut-Lung Axis in Health and Respiratory Diseases: A Place for Inter-Organ and Inter-Kingdom Crosstalks. Front Cell Infect Microbiol [Internet]. Frontiers; 2020 [cited 2020 Mar 27];10. Available from: https:\/\/www.frontiersin.org\/articles\/10.3389\/fcimb.2020.00009\/full<\/p>\n<p>20. <span class=\"Apple-tab-span\"> <\/span>Budden KF, Gellatly SL, Wood DLA, Cooper MA, Morrison M, Hugenholtz P, Hansbro PM. Emerging pathogenic links between microbiota and the gut\u2013lung axis. Nat Rev Microbiol. 2017;15:55\u201363.<span class=\"Apple-converted-space\">\u00a0<\/span><\/p>\n<p>21. <span class=\"Apple-tab-span\"> <\/span>Bo L, Li J, Tao T, Bai Y, Ye X, Hotchkiss RS, Kollef MH, Crooks NH, Deng X. Probiotics for preventing ventilator-associated pneumonia. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2014;10:CD009066.<span class=\"Apple-converted-space\">\u00a0<\/span><\/p>\n<p>22. <span class=\"Apple-tab-span\"> <\/span>Lei Pan. Clinical characteristics of COVID-19 patients with digestive symptoms in Hubei, China: a descriptive, cross-sectional, multicenter study. Am J Gastroenterol [Internet]. 2020;preprint. Available from: https:\/\/journals.lww.com\/ajg\/Documents\/COVID_Digestive_Symptoms_AJG_Preproof.pdf<\/p>\n<p>23. <span class=\"Apple-tab-span\"> <\/span>Xie C, Jiang L, Huang G, Pu H, Gong B, Lin H, Ma S, Chen X, Long B, Si G, et al. Comparison of different samples for 2019 novel coronavirus detection by nucleic acid amplification tests. Int J Infect Dis. Elsevier; 2020;93:264\u20137.<span class=\"Apple-converted-space\">\u00a0<\/span><\/p>\n<p>24. <span class=\"Apple-tab-span\"> <\/span>Wang W, Xu Y, Gao R, Lu R, Han K, Wu G, Tan W. Detection of SARS-CoV-2 in Different Types of Clinical Specimens. JAMA [Internet]. 2020 [cited 2020 Mar 26]; Available from: https:\/\/jamanetwork.com\/journals\/jama\/fullarticle\/2762997<\/p>\n<p>25. <span class=\"Apple-tab-span\"> <\/span>Nieuwe coronavirus aangetroffen in rioolwater | RIVM [Internet]. [cited 2020 Mar 26]. Available from: https:\/\/www.rivm.nl\/nieuws\/nieuwe-coronavirus-aangetroffen-in-rioolwater<\/p>\n<p>26. <span class=\"Apple-tab-span\"> <\/span>Hindson J. COVID-19: faecal\u2013oral transmission? Nat Rev Gastroenterol Hepatol. Nature Publishing Group; 2020;1\u20131.<span class=\"Apple-converted-space\">\u00a0<\/span><\/p>\n<p>27. <span class=\"Apple-tab-span\"> <\/span>Loss of sense of smell as marker of COVID-19 infection [Internet]. [cited 2020 Mar 26]. Available from: https:\/\/www.entuk.org\/loss-sense-smell-marker-covid-19-infection<\/p>\n<p>28. <span class=\"Apple-tab-span\"> <\/span>Baig AM, Khaleeq A, Ali U, Syeda H. Evidence of the COVID-19 Virus Targeting the CNS: Tissue Distribution, Host\u2013Virus Interaction, and Proposed Neurotropic Mechanisms. ACS Chem Neurosci [Internet]. American Chemical Society; 2020 [cited 2020 Mar 26]; Available from: https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1021\/acschemneuro.0c00122<\/p>\n<p>29. <span class=\"Apple-tab-span\"> <\/span>Li Y-C, Bai W-Z, Hashikawa T. The neuroinvasive potential of SARS-CoV2 may play a role in the respiratory failure of COVID-19 patients. J Med Virol [Internet]. 2020 [cited 2020 Mar 26];n\/a. Available from: https:\/\/onlinelibrary.wiley.com\/doi\/abs\/10.1002\/jmv.25728<\/p>\n<p>30. <span class=\"Apple-tab-span\"> <\/span>Daneman R, Prat A. The Blood\u2013Brain Barrier. Cold Spring Harb Perspect Biol [Internet]. 2015 [cited 2020 Mar 16];7. Available from: https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/pmc\/articles\/PMC4292164\/<\/p>\n<p>31. <span class=\"Apple-tab-span\"> <\/span>Fasano A. Zonulin and Its Regulation of Intestinal Barrier Function: The Biological Door to Inflammation, Autoimmunity, and Cancer. Physiol Rev. 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IFN-\u03b3, IL-17A, or zonulin rapidly increase the permeability of the blood-brain and small intestinal epithelial barriers: Relevance for neuro-inflammatory diseases. Biochem Biophys Res Commun. 2018;507:274\u20139.<span class=\"Apple-converted-space\">\u00a0<\/span><\/p>\n<p>35. <span class=\"Apple-tab-span\"> <\/span>Mayerhofer R, Fr\u00f6hlich EE, Reichmann F, Farzi A, Kogelnik N, Fr\u00f6hlich E, Sattler W, Holzer P. Diverse action of lipoteichoic acid and lipopolysaccharide on neuroinflammation, blood-brain barrier disruption, and anxiety in mice. Brain Behav Immun. 2017;60:174\u201387.<span class=\"Apple-converted-space\">\u00a0<\/span><\/p>\n<p>36. <span class=\"Apple-tab-span\"> <\/span>Cryan JF, O\u2019Riordan KJ, Cowan CSM, Sandhu KV, Bastiaanssen TFS, Boehme M, Codagnone MG, Cussotto S, Fulling C, Golubeva AV, et al. The Microbiota-Gut-Brain Axis. Physiol Rev. 2019;99:1877\u20132013.<span class=\"Apple-converted-space\">\u00a0<\/span><\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p>[\/et_pb_text][\/et_pb_column][\/et_pb_row][\/et_pb_section]<\/p>\n","protected":false},"excerpt":{"rendered":"<p>Immuniteit en virusinfecties Impressie van de publicaties over de relevantie van het microbioom\u00a0ImmuniteitHet microbioom in de darm speelt een belangrijke rol in de educatie en functie van het immuunsysteem (1,2). De darmbacteri\u00ebn zijn mede bepalend voor de grondtoon van het immuunsysteem (3) en be\u00efnvloeden daarmee de cruciale balans die er bestaat tussen voldoende afweer en [&hellip;]<\/p>\n","protected":false},"author":6,"featured_media":0,"parent":0,"menu_order":0,"comment_status":"closed","ping_status":"closed","template":"","meta":{"_acf_changed":false,"_et_pb_use_builder":"on","_et_pb_old_content":"","_et_gb_content_width":"","footnotes":""},"class_list":["post-2011","page","type-page","status-publish","hentry"],"acf":[],"yoast_head":"<!-- This site is optimized with the Yoast SEO plugin v27.6 - https:\/\/yoast.com\/product\/yoast-seo-wordpress\/ -->\n<title>Immuniteit en virusinfecties - Microbiome Center<\/title>\n<meta name=\"robots\" content=\"index, follow, max-snippet:-1, max-image-preview:large, max-video-preview:-1\" \/>\n<link rel=\"canonical\" href=\"https:\/\/dev.studioboszkers.nl\/microbiome-center\/immuniteit-en-virusinfecties\/\" \/>\n<meta property=\"og:locale\" content=\"nl_NL\" \/>\n<meta property=\"og:type\" content=\"article\" \/>\n<meta property=\"og:title\" content=\"Immuniteit en virusinfecties - 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